Advanced First Aid - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 18 Words: 5371 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/09/18 Category Advertising Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Customer Service Essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION â€Å"No man can reveal to you ought but that which already lies half asleep in the dawning of your knowledge. The teacher who walks in the shadow of the temple, among his followers, gives not of his wisdom but rather of his faith and his lovingness. † – Khalil Gibran – The Prophet This course belongs to YOU, and its success depends largely on you. Please enter into discussions ENTHUSIASTICALLY. Please feel free to share your EXPERIENCE with us. Please feel free to say what you think, even if you DISAGREE. You have been given an evaluation form. Please complete this form honestly as your feedback is vital for the improvement of the services G. T. S. C. provides to you. A customer complaint form is available from the instructor. If you have any complaint regarding any facet of the course or facility, please obtain this form and complete it. Completing the customer complaint form will in no way have any effect on your grading and/or passing of the course. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS COURSE: To give you a good overview of the principals of advanced first aid, shock, first aid safety, patient assessment, bleeding and wounds, fractures, choking and C. P. R. To help you to reach an acceptable level of providing practical patient treatment. FIRST AID is the initial assistance given for any victim before the arrival of an ambulance, doctor or other qualified person. The purpose of having people trained in First Aid is to provide help and care to the injured or sick, for the shortest possible time, until the care of the patient or victim can be taken over to a better-qualified person. In your working environment the better-qualified person can be the medical clinic staff, the ship’s doctor or nurse, or even the land-based ambulance staff. The fact that you will hand over your patient to another person doesn’t make what you are doing any less important. It is vitally important for any seriously injured or s ick person to receive help as soon as possible, and first aiders are trained for this specific reason – to give help and treatment as soon as possible. A first aider, or a person trained in first aid meets the following conditions: He/She is trained by a suitable instructor in specific fields of first aid, according to the guidelines as determined by an international recognized first aid institution. In order to stay current in first aid, the first aider should be examined and tested regularly, preferably every year, since first aid protocols, and more specific CPR protocols, changes almost yearly. The first aider should be re-examined on a regularly basis in order to ensure his/her first aid capability and proficiency. It is also expected from the first aider to ensure that he/she stays up to date in any changes which may occur, obtaining theoretical information through reputable publications or web sites such as the web site of the American Heart Association (www. aha. c om). Should the first aider learn about new guidelines, or changes in existing guidelines, he/she should adopt such guidelines and seek the guidance and help of qualified instructors in case of any difficulty. Research has shown that first aiders who are proficient in CPR, loses 60% of their practical skills if they don’t practice CPR within one year of the previous official training they received. This makes it very important to practice CPR at least yearly, if not every six months. PRINCIPLES OF FIRST AID In the world first aid has been as much a part of the culture as drinking tea. Caring volunteers and individuals performed a much-needed service to the sick and injured and laid the foundations for the formal first aid organizations such as St John Ambulance and the Red Cross. The period between the World Wars saw an increased awareness in the community of the benefits of first aid and the combining of other activities, such as surf life saving, with first aid traini ng. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s that the general public became involved by attending first aid classes and using this newfound knowledge to their benefit. First aid training has now become virtually indispensable to industry and for an active social life. What is first aid? First aid is the initial care of the injured or sick. It is the care administered by a concerned person as soon as possible after an accident or illness. It is this prompt care and attention that sometimes means the difference between life and death, or between a full or partial recovery. First aid has limitations not everybody is a doctor but it is an essential and vital part of the total medical concept. FIRST AID SAVES LIVES! sk any ambulance officer or doctor who works in the emergency medical field. Immediate action It is important that any action taken by the first aid provider is done as quickly as possible. Quick action is necessary to preserve life and limb. A casualty who is not breathing effectively, or is bleeding copiously, requires immediate intervention, and if quick effective first aid is provided, then the casualtys chances of recovery are improved immeasurably. It should be remembered though that any action undertaken is to be deliberate and panic by the first aid provider and bystanders will not be eneficial to the casualty. Try to remain calm and think your actions through. How do I get help? To get expert medical assistance, call an ambulance on ‘998’, alternatively you can call the police on 999. If your company has a medical clinic on site, it is better to call the clinic staff and let them decide whether it is necessary to call an outside ambulance. If you are attending a casualty, get a bystander to telephone for help if you are on your own, then you may have to leave the casualty momentarily to make a call. Its common sense, the decision is yours! Medic alert Some individuals suffer from certain medical conditions that may cause them to present with serious signs and symptoms at any time. As a form of assistance and notification, these people may wear a form of medical identification, usually a special bracelet, or less commonly, a necklace. These devices are commonly referred to as Medic Alert bracelets, but are also known as Vial of Life and SOS Talisman. They are stamped with the persons identity, the relevant medical condition, and other details which may include allergies, drugs required, or specialized medical contact. Medical conditions that may be notified vary from specific heart diseases, to diabetes, epilepsy, asthma etc. AIMS OF FIRST AID The aims of first aid are basically the preservation of life, the prevention of worsening of he patients’ condition and the promotion of recovery of the patient. The preservation of life is the most important function of the first aider, and this specific function can easily be accomplished and demonstrated in the choking victim or the patient going into sudden cardiac arrest. In both these cases, the immediate, correct and efficient treatment given by the irst aider can really save the life. In these cases, if the patient has to wait for advanced life support as rendered by higher trained medical staff, the waiting time can very well mean the end of the patient – THERE IS NO TIME TO WAIT help must be given immediately, and the first aider is the best and most readily available person to do this. The second aim of first aid, the prevention of the worsening of condition, is part of the scope of the first aider. For example, if somebody falls and break his upper leg (fracture of the femur), the patient can loose up to 1500ml body fluids because of the facture. If the patient is allowed to move around with an unsplinted or unstable fracture, the amount of body fluids lost can double. Losing more body fluids will result in greater shock and the worsening of the patient’s condition, even to such a point that the patient may die. The third aim – to promote recovery will be fulfilled if the first aider renders effective, indicated treatment. As in the example mentioned in the above paragraph, the early stabilizing of the fracture reduces fluid loss, combats shock and relieves swelling and pain. These combined factors will surely lead to a faster recovery of the patient, not only in helping recovery. SCABCS SCABCS is the prime consideration for everyone involved in the care and treatment of casualties. Experienced first aid providers, ambulance crews, nurses and medical specialists, are all-aware of the importance of Safety, Communication, Airway, Breathing, Circulation and Stop profuse bleeding Safety †¢ to yourself: dont put yourself in danger! †¢ to others: dont allow bystanders to be exposed to danger! †¢ to the casualty: remove the danger from the casualty, or the casualty from the danger! If it is not safe to touch or treat the patient, then don’t! Part of safety includes protecting yourself against infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are those diseases that cause infections to the human body, and in some cases are transmitted by contact or by cross-infection. Infection may be due to bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi. The usual methods of communication are; direct contact (contact with an infected person), indirect contact (through faeces, air conditioning, or similar), or through a host (insects, worms). Many deadly infectious diseases have been eradicated in the world, but several, such as poliomyelitis (a virus), are again on the increase. Many are preventable by immunization. Some, such as the Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV), have no cure or medical prevention. Examples of infectious diseases are: PARASITIC INFECTIONS: Malaria, tapeworm, hookworm, itch mites, pubic and body lice. FUNGAL INFECTIONS: Ringworm, tinea (Athletes Foot), thrush. BACTERIAL INFECTIONS: Throat infections, whooping cough, diphtheria, rheumatic feve r, tuberculosis strains, cholera, staphylococcus infection, and some forms of meningitis. VIRAL INFECTIONS: Measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis, influenza, chicken pox, HIV, SARS, common cold, bronchitis. The human body has natural defences against infection, and remains immune to certain types. Immunity is usually achieved by previous exposure to a particular infection, with resultant chemical antibodies being produced. The blood contains leukocytes (white blood cells), which assist in the production of antibodies. The leukocytes and antibodies combat any infection, which invades the body. Unfortunately, the bodys natural defences work slowly and cannot cope adequately with particularly virulent nfections. It is at this stage that the body requires help in the form of medically prescribed antibiotics or similar drugs. Advice on general precautions that can be offered by the first aid provider are: (avoid direct contact with infection (avoid transmitting infection (care of the sus ceptible, i. e. , the ill, the elderly, the very young (care in nutrition and preparation of food (maintenance of personal hygiene (maintenance of sanitary standards There is no definitive first aid treatment for infectious diseases. However, the first aid provider should be familiar with the signs and symptoms of the common diseases, and provide advice to the infected person to seek appropriate medical attention. Communication †¢ use the shake and shout method! †¢ is the casualty alert? †¢ is the casualty drowsy or confused? †¢ is the casualty unconscious, but reacting? †¢ is the casualty unconscious with no reaction? Level of consciousness refers to the level of brain function detectable. Prior to continuing the examination of the patient, we need to determine the level of consciousness. The level of consciousness can be divided into hundreds of small steps, each step referring to a different level of brain function. In basic first aid, we are primar ily concerned with the following levels of consciousness: |Alert and responsive |Responds to verbal or physical stimuli, knows who, where and what. | |Disorientated and confused |May respond to verbal and physical stimuli but does not know who, where or what | |Stuporous but arousable |Responds to verbal and/or physical stimuli omentarily | |Unconscious |Responds only to physical stimuli, will respond to painful stimuli | |Comatose |Breathing and heartbeat present, does not respond to verbal stimuli, may respond to painful | | |stimuli | |Clinically dead |Breathing and/or heart function may be present, no detectable brain function present | |Biological dead |No body or brain functions present | | | | Airway †¢ is the airway open and clear? †¢ is there noisy breathing? †¢ are there potential obstructions such as blood? Breathing †¢ look to see if the chest and/or abdomen moves! †¢ look for signs of breathing – general appearance of the patient If the c asualty is conscious, then treat the injuries or illness according to the signs and symptoms. If the casualty is unconscious, and breathing spontaneously, place him or her in the recovery or lateral position, then treat any injuries. If the casualty is unconscious, and not breathing, then commence resuscitation as required, according to the CPR protocol Stop profuse bleeding If any excessive (profuse) bleeding is present, this must be controlled as soon as possible. In general, profuse bleeding will be bleeding from an artery – seldom this bleeding will be from veins. Wounds, bleeding and control of bleeding will be discussed in detail later on during this course. CPR CHOKING Basic Life Support (BLS) is the part of emergency care that prevents respiratory or cardiac arrest through prompt recognition and intervention, or supports the ventilation and circulation of a victim of cardiac arrest by means of Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR). [1] BLS can therefore be seen as the provision of external cardiac/chest compressions, accompanied by artificial ventilation.. The major objective of performing CPR is to supply oxygen to the vital organs until such time that advanced care can be given, or until the victim’s own body functions are restored. The patient, whose circulation or breathing has been interrupted for less than 4 minutes, has an excellent chance to recover fully if BLS is performed within 4 minutes, and ACLS follows within the first 8 minutes. The longer it takes before BLS and ACLS are rendered, the smaller the chance for survival (Table 1). The Sequence of Adult BLS Unresponsiveness Before you touch any patient, you should ensure that you have Latex (or similar) gloves on both hands, to protect you against any disease the patient may have. To determine if a patient is unresponsive, you should talk to the patient, and gently shake the shoulders of the patient. Care should be taken if the patient has had, or could have sustained trauma, since the shaking of a trauma patient’s shoulders could cause paralysis in a patient with a cervical spine injury. Trauma patients should not be shaken, and in this case â€Å"touch and talk† is safer that â€Å"shout and shake†[30] Remember that the unresponsive patient you may encounter, could be unresponsive due to an anxiety attack, hypoglycaemic coma or even because the patient took his prescribed sleeping tablet. In this case the patient may not respond to talking, shouting or shaking, same as the deaf patient will not respond to talking. In most cases, it is more advisable to give a pain stimulus to an unconscious patient if he/she didn’t reach to â€Å"touch and talk† or â€Å"shake and shout†. Pain should be given only to determine the level of unconsciousness and must be given to the patient in such a way that it cannot be described as assault or leave any damage to the patient. A safe way of giving pain is to press dow n on the fossa (depression) behind the collar bone, at the root of the neck. Airway If the patient is unresponsive, you should determine if the patient is breathing. In order to determine patient respiration, you must ensure that the airway is open, and the only way to be sure that the airway is open, is to open it manually. Before opening the airway, the patient should be positioned supine. If you suspect the patient has received any trauma (injury, falling down, etc. ), the patient must be treated as though he has spinal injuries. You cannot simply turn the patient. You should roll the patient as a unit, keeping the spinal column intact and aligned [31]. Once the patient is supine, you should position yourself at the victims’ side. In a supine unconscious patient, the most common cause for airway obstruction is the tongue, falling back against the back of the throat. 16] Since the tongue is attached to the lower jaw, moving the lower jaw away from the back of the throat will move the tongue away from the back of the throat and open the airway. Use the HEAD TILT-CHIN LIFT method of opening the airway by following these steps: 1. place one hand on the forehead of the patient and apply firm backward pressure to tilt the head back. 2. place the fingers of the other hand under the bony part of the lower jaw. 3. lift the chin forward and support the jaw, helping to tilt the head backwards. 4. the mouth should not be closed when lifting the chin. [32] Breathing The first objective after opening the airway is to determine if the patient is breathing or not. To determine if the patient is breathing, you should LOOK, LISTEN FEEL: 1. Look at the patient’s chest and observe if there are any raising and falling movements of the chest present. (If the patient is a male, you will have a better chance to observe upper abdomen movement since men use the diaphragm primarily breathing, while woman tend to use the intercostal muscles primarily for breathing . ) 2. With your ears close to the mouth of the patient, you should listen and feel and for any air moving into or out of the patient’s mount or nose. If no air is exhaled, and no chest movement can be detected, the patient is in respiratory arrest. The evaluation procedure should take between 3 and 5 seconds. [33] If the patient is breathing after the airway is opened, the patient should be placed in the recovery position. A trauma patient should not be moved without special precautions. Your actions will be determined by the nature of the breathing, the history of the patient and your own level of training and expertise. Ventilation Ventilations must be given if the patient is not breathing. Whichever device you use, you should initially give two slow ventilations, each ventilation lasting 1 second. The 1-second time period for ventilation is necessary in order to deliver slow inspiratory breaths. By giving the ventilations with a slow inspiratory flow rate and avoid the trapping of air in the lungs between ventilations, the possibility of exceeding the oesophageal opening pressure will be less. It should result in less gastric distension, regurgitation and aspiration. [37] Care must be taken not to ventilate with excessive volume, since the excessive air can go only to the stomach. Ventilate only until the chest rises. Exhalation is a passive phenomenon and occurs primarily during chest compressions if CPR is being performed. [37] Although mouth-to-mouth ventilation is effective, it should be avoided because of the dangers of cross-infection. It can however be given to somebody which you know have no infectious disease, like your own small child. In all other patients, a barrier-device must be used to ventilate. Two types of barrier devices are available and acceptable: masks and face shields. Masks have a one-way-valve to prevent the air escaping from the patient to come in contact with the ventilator. Face shields have no valve, the only p rotection it gives is against direct contact, which makes face shields almost impractical. [8] A facemask is used in the following way: 1. Place the mask around the patient’s mouth and nose using the bridge of the nose as a guide for the correct position. 2. Grab the lower jaw and thrust it upwards against the mask, which you are pressing downwards with your thumbs and index fingers of both hands. 3. Ventilate through the one-way valve and observe that the chest is rising. 4. Remove the mask and allow the air to escape from the patient’s lungs. If the mask is equipped with a one-way valve, there is no need to remove the mask after each ventilation. [19] Repeat the four steps. A more effective method of ventilation is using a bag-valve-mask (BVM), since a BVM delivers at least 21% oxygen whereas expired air ventilation delivers maximum 16% oxygen. A BVM should be used as follows: 1. Choose the proper size mask for the patient. The wide base of the mask should fit snu gly between the chin prominence and the lower lip, and extend to cover the bridge of the nose at its apex. 2. Ensure that the cuff of the mask is inflated in order to create a seal between the mask and the patient. 3. The and holding the mask should have the thumb placed on top of the flat surface of the transparent plastic, one or two fingers on the wide transparent base of the mask, and two or three fingers should grab the mandible of the patient. 4. Press down on the transparent part of the mask, while pulling the mandible towards the mask; at the same time the hand holding the mask should not only pull the mandible towards the mask, but should also perform a chin-lift in order to keep the airway open. 5. Using the other hand, depress the bag portion of the BVM in order to ventilate the patient. 6. While pressing the bag portion, listen carefully for air escaping between the mask and the patient, and feel for any resistance while pressing the bag (bagging). 7. Don’t rem ove the bag in order to allow expired air to escape. 8. It is more effective and easier if one person is using both hands to hold the mask in place while another person is bagging. Chest compressions The chest compression technique consists of serial, rhythmic applications of pressure over the lower half of the sternum[4] These compressions provide circulation as a result of a generalised increase in intra-thoracic pressure or direct compression of the heart. [5,6] The patient must be in a horizontal, supine position during chest compressions. Even with properly performed compressions, blood flow to the brain is reduced. Proper hand position is on the lower half of the sternum. It does not matter which method you use to establish the lower half of the sternum, however, the long axis of the heel of the hand is located on the lower half of the long axis of the sternum. The fingers can be interlocked or free, but should be kept off the chest. It is, however, good practice to interlo ck the fingers to ensure that no pressure is exerted on the ribs. People with arthritic hands and/or wrists can use the hand which was used to locate the lower half of the sternum, to grasp the wrist of the hand which is on the chest. [1] Effective chest compressions are achieved by following the guidelines: 1. Your elbows should be locked into position, your arms straightened and your shoulders directly above the patient’s sternum 2. To achieve the most pressure with the least effort, lean forward until your shoulders are directly over your outstretched hands (lean forward until the body reaches natural imbalance – a point at which there would be a sensation of falling forward if the hands and arms were not providing support). The weight of your shoulders, chest and back creates the necessary pressure that makes compressions easier on the arms and shoulders. Natural body weight falling forward provides the force to depress the sternum. 3. The sternum should be depr essed approximately 1? to 2 inches (3. 8 to 5. 1cm) for the normal-sized adult. The depth of compressions may change according to the size of the chest of the patient; a large, barrel-shaped chest may need deeper compressions. The only way to know that your compressions are deep enough is to have somebody feel for palpable carotid pulse. If your compressions create palpable carotid pulse, the compression depth is sufficient. 4. Release pressure on the chest between compressions to allow blood to flow into the chest and heart. The chest must be allowed to return to its normal position. 5. The duration of the compression should be equal to the duration of pressure release: in other words, the time you spend to press down on the chest should be the same as the time you spend to â€Å"come up† from the chest. 6. There should be no pause between compressions in a cycle, don’t pause on top. 7. Do not lift the hands from the chest, you will loose correct hand position. 8. Bouncing compressions, jerky movements, improper hand position and leaning on the chest can decrease the effectiveness of the compressions and can cause injuries. 9. The chest compression rate should be minimum 80 to 100 per minute. [40] Cardiac output resulting from chest compressions is likely to be only 17% – 25% of normal cardiac output. [7] Sequence for Adult One-person CPR 1. Determine unresponsiveness. a. Tap or gently shake the shoulders and shout. b. Consider giving painful stimuli. c. Call for help locally, inform the help of the situation you have. 2. Open the airway a. Position the patient. b. Open the airway by head tilt-chin lift manoeuvre or jaw-thrust. 3. Assess breathing a. Look for signs of breathing for up to 10 seconds. b. If the patient is unresponsive but obviously breathing and if there is no trauma, place the patient in the recovery position and maintain an open airway. c. Ventilate twice using BVM or pocket mask barrier device. d. If unable to v entilate twice, reposition the head and attempt to ventilate again. e. If ventilation is still unsuccessful, perform the foreign body airway obstruction sequence. f. If ventilation is successful, continue to next step. 4. Chest compressions: ? Position yourself properly ? Determine correct hand position Perform 30 compressions at a rate of 100 compressions per minute. ? Open the airway and give two slow ventilations. (1 seconds per ventilation) ? Re-determine proper hand position and begin 30 more compressions at a rate of 100 per minute. ? Continue 30 compressions and 2 breaths until the patient is resuscitated that is breathing returns or the EMS/Ambulance arrives Two-person adult CPR When another person is available to assist you with CPR, the second person can perform the chest compressions when the first person becomes fatigued. This change should be done with as little interruption as possible. The ratio of compressions to breaths remains 30 compressions to 2 breaths. Forei gn body airway obstruction Because early recognition of airway obstruction is vital to a successful outcome, it is important to distinguish between airway obstruction, stroke, heart attack et cetera. Obstruction can be partial or full. If partial, the patient may be able to have sufficient air exchange, and will remain conscious, coughing forcefully and wheezing between coughs. In this case, the patient should be encouraged to continue forceful coughing until the obstruction is cleared and you should not interfere with the patients’ attempts to expel the obstruction. If the obstruction isn’t cleared rapidly, advanced help should be called without delay. A partial obstruction with inadequate air exchange to remain conscious should be treated like a patient with full airway obstruction. With complete airway obstruction the patient will be unable to breath, cough and speak, and may clutch the neck with his hand. Ask the patient if he is choking, even though he cannot s peak, he may nod his head to indicate that he is. In this case, death will follow quickly if action is not taken immediately. The Abdominal Thrust The Abdominal Thrust is recommended for expelling a foreign body from the airway. [13] By applying forceful, upwards and inwards pressure on the abdomen inferior to the diaphragm, the intestine, liver, stomach and spleen is forced upwards, transferring the force to the diaphragm. The diaphragm is displaced upwards, transferring the force directly to the lungs. The pressure generated is then exerted on the obstruction. The aim is to create enough pressure on the obstruction (foreign body), to force the foreign body upwards in the airway, and thus clearing the airway. One should remember that it is very possible to damage internal organs like the abdominal or thoracic viscera, the spleen and the liver while doing the Abdominal Thrust. [14] To minimise this possibility, your hands should never be placed on the xiphoid of the sternum or on the lower margins of the rib cage. They should be below this area but above the navel and in the midline. [42] Abdominal Thrust with patient sitting/standing. [13,14,15] 1. Stand behind patient, wrap your arms around the patient’s waist. 2. Make a fist with one hand. 3. Place the thumb side of the fist against the patient’s abdomen, in the midline and slightly above the navel. 4. Stay well away form the xiphoid process. 5. Grab the fist with the other hand and press the fist into the patient’s abdomen with a quick upward thrust. 6. Repeat the thrusts and continue until the foreign object is expelled or until the patient becomes unconscious. 7. Each thrust should be an independent movement. Abdominal Thrust with patient lying down. [43] 1. Place the patient is supine position. 2. Kneel aside the patient’s thighs and place the heel of one hand against the patient’s abdomen, in the midline and slightly above the navel. 3. Keep well away from th e patient’s xiphoid process. 4. Place the second hand directly on top of the first hand. 5. Press on the abdomen with a quick, upward thrust. 6. Use your body weight and shoulder muscles to perform the manoeuvre. Chest thrusts with patient sitting or standing This technique is only used in the late stage of pregnancy and on markedly obese patients. 1. Stand behind patient with your arms directly under the patient’s armpits, and encircle the chest. 2. Place the heel side of your fist on the centre of the patient’s sternum, avoiding the xiphoid process and the margins of the rib cage. 3. Grab your fist with your other hand and perform backward thrusts until the foreign body is expelled or until the victim becomes unconscious. Chest thrusts with patient lying down. This should be done only in the last stage of pregnancy and when the Heimlich manoeuvre cannot be applied to the conscious/unconscious obese patient. 1. Place the patient on his back and kneel close t o the victim’s side. 2. The hand position is exactly the same as for CPR. 3. Deliver each thrust firmly and distinctly. Management sequence for obstructed airway: 1. Do abdominal thrusts (or chest thrusts for late stages of pregnancy and obese patients), and repeat doing thrusts on the conscious victim until the obstruction is expelled or until the patient becomes unconscious. 2. Open the airway, look in the mouth for any visible obstruction, and attempt to ventilate. If ventilation attempt is unsuccessful; 3. Re-open the airway and attempt to ventilate again. If ventilation is still ineffective; 4. Perform 30 chest compressions 5. Open airway, look inside mouth for visible obstruction and do finger sweep. 6. Attempt ventilation. If ventilation is unsuccessful; 7. Re-open airway and attempt to ventilate again. If unsuccessful; 8. Perform 30 chest compressions 9. Repeat steps 5 to 8 until successful or until death certification. 10. If successful, treat according to patient ’s condition. Head tilt-chin lift. Note that the fingers lifting the chin are not exerting pressure on the soft tissues under the chin. Wrong head tilt-chin lift. Fingers exerting pressure on the soft tissues under the chin can press the tongue towards the palate – causing airway obstruction. Observe for breathing. Recovery position Position of the facemask. Ventilating with a BVM. Note at least two fingers pressing down on the plastic part of the mask to ensure a tight seal between the mask and the face of the patient. Note that at least two fingers should grasp the bony part of the chin and pull it against the BVM facemask. Place the middle finger on the Xiphoid process against the sub-sternal notch and the index finger on the sternum. [pic] Place the heel of the other hand next to the index finger, making sure that the heel is on the lower half of the sternum. Figure. Place the first hand on top of the other hand and interlock the fingers to ensure that there is no pressure on the ribs. Figure. Correct compression position. Note that the elbows are locked, the heel of the lower hand is on the sternum, and the shoulders are directly above the hand and the sternum. Abdominal Thrust in conscious patient (sitting or standing). Abdominal thrusts on an unconscious patient. Chest thrusts on the conscious pregnant or markedly obese patient. Chest thrusts on the unconscious pregnant or markedly obese patient. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Advanced First Aid" essay for you Create order

The Co Existence Of Feminism And Naturalism - 1625 Words

Claire Schenken Mr. Carroll English IV AP 20 October 2014 The Co-Existence of Feminism and Naturalism in The Awakening As the book that simultaneously killed Kate Chopin’s career and synthesized traditional literary features, such as romanticism, with their new opponents feminism and naturalism, The Awakening bares a weighted name. The Victorian-era setting in which it was also written can be greatly accredited to these ideas, as the influx of new ideas regarding society, gender roles, and human life and love were upcoming and increasingly present, especially in the free-thinking Creole society that The Awakening’s protagonist, Edna Pontellier, resided. Chopin implements these new ideas through both naturalist and feminist values in her†¦show more content†¦Chopin’s integration of naturalist and feminist values throughout Edna’s rebellion against society are key in understanding the repression Edna felt. Both values can be primarily seen in Chopin’s contrast of Edna and her close friend Adele. Edna goes to reject the feminist attributes of Adele, who fit i nto society as one of the mother-women who â€Å"†¦idolized their children, worshipped their husbands, and esteemed it a holy privilege to efface themselves as individuals and grow wings as ministering angels† (Chopin 51). Edna’s defiance of a standard patriarchal society embraces feminism as Chopin mocks society’s idea of women-as-angels and instead portrays her as a mother, but not a mother-woman, as her children do not define her like Adele’s do. Naturalist views are additionally seen through Edna’s relationship with Adele, a traditional Creole woman who â€Å"†¦[spoke] her mind, assert[ed] her sexuality, and otherwise [broke] loose from the constraints of convention (Fleissner 238). Viewing this complex combination of Creole’s freedom of speech and affection with restrictions on sexual autonomy, we must look solely to naturalism to understand Edna and Adele’s differences. While Edna is unfamiliar and confused by affecti on, as seen by Adele’s touch, Adele is comfortable with her identity as a sexual being and a mother-woman. This acceptance of life as a mother-woman can be explained by her natural

Common App Essay Topics 2018 Explained

Common App Essay Topics 2018 Explained Choosing Good Common App Essay Topics 2018 Actually, I'd been born into this sort of situation. Nevertheless, you probably have lots of questions as yet unanswered. No matter the circumstance, create a very clear picture of its private importance and that which you did, or would do, to fix the issue. Don't neglect to explain why the issue is valuable to you! You have to stay inside this length. At length, the detail of true speech makes the scene pop. Consult your parents to spell out the rear row to you. Learn more on the subject of essay length. But if you're struggling to earn a determination, take a peek at our Choosing A Common App Essay Topic guide. The function of the Common App is the exact same too. Bear in mind that the Common App provides you with creative license. Learn about the advantages of the Common App and get our expert tips on how to handle your time this fall. At exactly the same time, you will impress the college admissions folks greatly if you're able to present your capacity to learn from your failures and mistakes. This prompt is a great choice if you wish to explore a single event or achievement that marked a very clear milestone in your private development. The procedure for your experience is essential. Allow it to sit for a couple days untouched. Life After Common App Essay Topics 2018 Our Simple Truths about the College Essay provides you with a wide overview of what it is you're hoping to do to your 650-word chance to express a compelling and unique facet of yourself. Please be aware that a few of these college essay examples might be responding to prompts that are no longer being used. Excellent essays don't get written daily. Failure essays are the very best approaches to grab the interest of the admission officers. In case you haven't got a considerable failure to discuss, then move along a there are different topics to select from. Our experts understand how to bring out the finest in your writing, and will supply you with the feedback you should create a stick out essay. On the other hand, the initial six topics are incredibly broad with plenty of flexibility, so make certain your topic really can't be identified with one of them. Share an essay on any subject of your selection. All of these are things you're able to consider while working on this essay. In general, there's no single correct topic. Now's the time to begin contemplating how you will approach the essay prompts it's never too early to begin thinking about college admissions! Even an everyday issue with significance to you can be turned into an outstanding essay. You may even recycle a paper you may have written for a different goal! Because of this, attempt to care for the essay as a chance to tell colleges why you could be unique and what matters to you. Each is appropriate, and the grade of the essay is what the majority of matters. If you decide to answer this essay, you should identify an issue with meaning and importance to you. What you share can be meaningful in a number of ways. Because everybody has a story to tell. Talk about the folks who share your passion, or the people who inspired it. You are able to discuss the folks who share your passion, or the people who inspired it. For example, you can zoom in on one specific component of your background and identity and the way it informs the direction you look at and approach certain things. Either way, you will need to explain what made you decided the belief needs to be challenged, and what exactly you actually did. You should share a distinctive component of your background or upbringing. Responses should be personal, but make certain that your idea or belief isn't too controversial.

Financial Accounting A Case Study Of Felicity Flowers

Question: Discuss about theFinancial Accounting for a Case Study Of Felicity Flowers. Answer: Introduction: The overall study mainly focuses on identifying the significance of credit card acceptance, which might help Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd to increase their profits. In addition, the novice effectively calculates the average collection cost, which is spent by the company. Moreover, the study also shows the augmentation of credit card gains, which might help Felicity to earn interest on surplus cash. In addition, the research of Daniel regarding the growth of their competitors after the implementation of credit portrays the needs of strategic development. Preparing a Table for Portraying the Average Credit /Collection Cost of Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd: Average credit/collection cost % Amount 3yr average Monthly average Average monthly receivables $ 40,000 credit sales $ 1,350,000 $ 37,500 Collection cost $ 8,000 $ 666.67 Invoice collection costs 0.54% $ 7,290 $ 607.50 Total Average collection cost 3.19% $ 15,290 $ 1,274 Table 1: Showing the average credit / collection cost of Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd (Sources: As created by author) With the help of table 1, the overall monthly credit collection cost of Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd could be effectively evaluated. In addition, the average credit collection cost is estimated at around $1,274 per month. Furthermore, the average collection cost of sales conducted by the company mainly indicates the high expense. In addition, the bad debt is mainly accounted, which mainly amounts to $1406.25 per month. Thus, it could be concluded that risk from bad debts and increased collection payments might affect the overall profitability of Felicity flowers. Oikonomou, Brooks, and Pavelin (2014) mentioned that with the help of doubtful bad debt provisions and collection agencies companies are able to recover their overall lost cash. On the other hand, Wheelock and Wilson (2013) criticises that maintaining credit sales during an economic crisis might increase the overall debt and reduce their profitability. Portraying the Analysis to Show the Interest Earnings Forgone if Credit Cards were not Introduced: Interest rate earned % Amount 3yr average Monthly average Average monthly receivables $ 40,000 credit sales $ 1,350,000 $ 112,500 Average monthly cash surplus $ 72,500 Interest rate 7% $ 5,075 Total Average monthly interest rate earned on cash surplus $ 5,075 Table 2: Showing the interest earned from deploying credit card scheme (Sources: As created by author) In addition, table 2 mainly helps in depicting the overall interest, which might be earned by Felicity flowers by deploying credit card scheme. Furthermore, the average monthly income cash flow is depicted around $40,000 and surplus of their amount will be invested at 7% p.a. However, after the calculation for 3 year average sales, the monthly sales is depicted to be around $112,500, which helps the company to get a surplus of $72,500 monthly. Thus, the average monthly interest earned by the company might increase to $5,075. Furthermore, the limited information provided by Daniel could only provide the income, which might be generated after the deployment of credit card. Disney and Gathergood (2013) argued that due to changing policies adopted by banks the overall credit card payment might get delayed and reduce liquidity of the business. Portraying the Total Cost in Dollars of the Collection Cost of Carrying Accounts Receivable: Monthly cost of credit card % Amount on 3 year basis Monthly average amount Average monthly receivables 40,000 credit sales 1,350,000 112,500 Add interest earned 7% 72,500 5,075 Accountant cost 19,000 1,583.33 Credit card sales 4% 54,000 4,500 Invoice collection costs 0.54% 7,290 607.50 Total cost for carrying out account receivables monthly 1.44% 80,290 1,615.83 Table 3: Showing the total cost of carrying accounts receivable (Sources: As created by author) Monthly cost of Collection % Amount on 3 year basis Monthly average amount Average monthly receivables 40,000 credit sales 1,350,000 112,500 Accountant cost 19,000 1,583.33 Collection cost 8,000 666.67 Bad debt 1.25% 16,875 1,406.25 Invoice collection costs 0.54% 7,290 607.50 Total cost for carrying out account receivables monthly 3.79% 51,165 4,263.75 Table 4: Showing the total cost of carrying accounts receivable (Sources: As created by author) With the help of table 3 and 4, the overall different types of costs, which might be incurred by Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd is effectively evaluated. In addition, from the above table it could be concluded that uses of credit card scheme depicted by Daniel might help the company to reduce their costs and increase profitability. Acharya, Almeida and Campello (2013) mentioned that reduction in cost is the mainly priority of companies, which help them to increase retimed profits and cash reserves despite no change in sales figure. Recommending Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd to Introduce Credit Card: With the help of above analysis and tables, the implementation of credit card scheme might mainly help Felicity Flowers to decrease their debt and expenditure over collection cost. Furthermore, the decline in cost might help the company to increase its income from interest earned from excessive cash balance. In addition, current collection cost mainly increases its expenditure by $4,263.75 on a monthly average. However, by implementing the credit card scheme the company might effectively decrease its overall cost of expenditure to around $1615.83. Thus, it could be effectively seen that implementation of credit card scheme might eventually help the company to reduce their expenditure and loan amount provided to clients. In this context, Behr and Sonnekalb (2012) mentioned that reduced credit days to clients mainly hep in maintaining the required liquidity, which might support future prospects of the company. Depicting the Change in Recommendations of Non-Financial Qualitative Factors were Considered: After considering the research conducted by Daniel regarding the implementation of credit cards non-financial qualitative factors does not pose any threat to the recommendations. In addition, the non-financial factors like service quality, brand image and reputation are not in-stake if credit card is implementation. However, the implementation of credit scheme has mainly helped their competitors and might help Felicity Flowers to increase their sales to high number of customers. Das, Das and Mondal (2013) argued that frequent change in policy might mainly reduce productivity of the company, which in turn might decrease its revenue generation capacity. Conclusion: The overall study mainly helps in evaluating the significance of credit card scheme, which might be implemented by Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd in their operations. In addition, the novice effectively shows the calculation, which might be used in identifying the appropriate strategy for Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd. Lastly, the novice effectively depicts the overall cost, which might be incurred by deploying the credit card scheme in Felicity Flowers Pty Ltd. Reference: Acharya, V.V., Almeida, H. and Campello, M., 2013. Aggregate risk and the choice between cash and lines of credit.The Journal of Finance,68(5), pp.2059-2116. Behr, P. and Sonnekalb, S., 2012. The effect of information sharing between lenders on access to credit, cost of credit, and loan performanceEvidence from a credit registry introduction.Journal of Banking Finance,36(11), pp.3017-3032. Das, B.C., Das, B. and Mondal, S.K., 2013. Integrated supply chain model for a deteriorating item with procurement cost dependent credit period.Computers Industrial Engineering,64(3), pp.788-796. Disney, R. and Gathergood, J., 2013. Financial literacy and consumer credit portfolios.Journal of Banking Finance,37(7), pp.2246-2254. Oikonomou, I., Brooks, C. and Pavelin, S., 2014. The effects of corporate social performance on the cost of corporate debt and credit ratings.Financial Review,49(1), pp.49-75. Wheelock, D.C. and Wilson, P.W., 2013. The evolution of cost-productivity and efficiency among US credit unions.Journal of Banking Finance,37(1), pp.75-88.

Theory Observation Distinction Essay Example

Theory Observation Distinction Essay Is there a genuine distinction between observable and unobservable entities? Why does it matter? How, and why, might one distinguish between theoretical and observational statements in science? I have decided to tackle both these questions because they feed into and relate to one another. They emphasize different aspects of a prevalent debate, all aspects of which I wish to touch on. Whether the question of a distinction between observable vs unobservable entities is synonymous to the question of a distinction between theoretical vs non-theoretical statements is itself a matter of debate. Quine advocates semantic ascent, the shift in which the language we use to refer to the world becomes something we talk about in its own right. Semantic ascent is a shift from questions about objects to questions about words or statements. He says we should ‘drop the talk of observation and talk instead of observation sentences, the sentences that are said to report observations’ (The roots of Reference). So obviously Quine thinks the two questions are equivalent. They have often been treated as equivalent questions, or at least not distinguished too carefully. I agree with Van Fraassen that we should at least note and respect the differences between the two ways of talking about what might be the same issue, and not make the category mistake of talking about theoretical entities, just for clarities sake. At any event Paul M Churchland disagrees with Quine that the two debates are parallel , He says â€Å"we agree (Churchland and Van Fraassen) that the observable/unobservable distinction is entirely distinct from the nontheoretical/theoretical distinction†. We will write a custom essay sample on Theory Observation Distinction specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Theory Observation Distinction specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Theory Observation Distinction specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This disagreement / confusion as to the very terrain, layout of the questions of the debate, arises because there is the ordinary language question of how do we naturally apply the terms ‘observed’ and ‘observation’, as well as the question of whether a principled O/T distinction can or should be drawn; as Gerry Fodor’s Granny says: â€Å"True there is an epistemologically important distinction, that it’s reasonable to call ‘the’ observation inference distinction, and that is theory relative. And, also true, it is this theory-relative distinction that scientists usually use the terms ’observed’ and ‘inferred’ to mark. But that is quite compatible with there being another distinction, which it is also reasonable to call ‘the’ observation /inference distinction which is also of central significance to the philosophy of science, and which is not theory relative. † It is this second principled O/T distinction that I will focus on as opposed to the ordinary language distinction, I do not think ordinary language arguments bear on the question of whether there is or should be a principled distinction. Although examining what inclines us one way or another in ordinary language usage may clarify factors that also influence us in an overall distinction, such as naturalness, entrenchment, flexibility and plasticity. After semantic ascent the question of whether there is an O/T dichotomy becomes one of whether all observation reports presuppose some theory. This slightly ignores the question of the ontological status of the entities, whether observed or unobserved, but this will come up when I tackle the subsidiary part of each question the â€Å"why make a distinction, for what purpose? †or â€Å"why does it matter if a distinction presents itself? I think the strategy of semantic ascent is useful and justified since the debate takes place in at least two domains, the perceptual/cognitive (internal) and the observational/inferential (public)â€Å"The strategy of semantic ascent is that it carries the discussion into a domain where both parties are better agreed on the objects (viz. , words) and on the main terms connecting them. Words, or their inscriptions, unlike points, miles, classes and the rest, are tangible objects of the size so popular in the marketplace, where men of unlike conceptual schemes communicate at their best. The strategy is one of ascending to a common part of two fundamentally disparate conceptual schemes, the better to discuss the disparate foundations. No wonder it helps in philosophy. † Quine word and object. But it is a bit confusing and difficult to translate debates or points between the two, and certain debates are clearer at the ground level rather than the meta-level. There are three classes of arguments that bear on the T/O distinction: 1. Meaning holism arguments. Which tend to work against the distinction 2. Ordinary language arguments. Which tend to work for the distinction 3. Psychological arguments. Which can work for or against As well as a specific argument by Grover Maxwell from the continuity of observation with inference which works against the T/O distinction. There are two extant modes for making the theory observation distinction – Fodor’s and Van Fraassen’s. Fodor defends the distinction against the implication from cognitive science that perception is continuous with cognition. Van Fraassen defends the distinction against Maxwell’s challenge that it is impossible to draw the line between what is observable and what is only detectable in some more roundabout way. Fodor and Van Fraassen have different reasons for drawing a distinction, Fodor, to defend realism, Van Fraassen to attack realism, strangely enough. Fodor to defend realism against Kuhnian relativism, and Van Fraassen to defend constructive empiricism, a form of anti-realism, against incoherence, and so pit it against realism. As Andre Kukla notes â€Å"It is not surprising that a realist and an anti-realist should agree on something; but it is curious that van Fraassens and Fodor’s defenses of the theory-observation distinction play diametrically opposite roles in their philosophical agenda’s. † Andre Kukla the theory observation distinction. But should we be driven by a philosophical agenda in debating a question? Or should we resolve the question and then decide on a position which accords with our answer? Shouldn’t we be neutral when we make philosophical decisions? Unfortunately in philosophy there is so little ‘evidence’ making up your mind is more a matter of achieving coherence, it is legitimate to allow justification to flow in all directions. The question of whether there is a T/O distinction is relevant to the debate between realists anti-realists and relativists in the following manner. So far as realists debate with anti-realists is concerned, the T/O distinction is optional for realists. They have everything to gain and nothing to lose by making it unravel. They have everything to gain, because the constructive empiricist position is incoherent without a T/O distinction. But so far as realists debate with relativists goes, realists have conversely everything to gain and nothing to lose by defending a distinction, they would defeat relativists. Kuhnain Relativism requires the lack of a theory neutral language with which to adjudicate our differences, so we get incommensurability, incommensurability leads to the irrationality of theory choice thus we get relativism. But realists cannot have an easy victory against both parties. I suggest that the realist denies the T/O distinction and so wins against the constructive empiricist. The lack of a T/O distinction does not entail relativism; a theory laden observation can still test a theory. To return to the question of whether we should be driven by a philosophical agenda in deciding a point, it must be remembered that we are concerning ourself with the question of whether there is a significant or principled O/T distinction. Its significance comes from its position within a larger debate. Frankly, everyone can admit there is some sort of distinction or difference between direct and indirect observation, the question really is how significant the difference is, whether a distinction can be drawn at a position significant enough to support any theory, the significance depends on the work it is made to do by larger theories. Paul M. churchland defines his scientific realism as a realism entirely in terms of his attitude towards the T/O distinction. He believes any attempt to draw the distinction, particularly Van Fraassen’s, is arbitrary. By any skepticism â€Å"our observational ontology is rendered exactly as dubious as our non-observational ontology† He is not an orthodox scientific realist; he is skeptical about the overall truth of our beliefs, the reference of scientific terms, and the convergence of theory towards truth. But he is skeptical about the success of all our theories, cognition at large, from a low to a high level not just scientific theories, and thus does not distinguish between the integrity of observables and the integrity of unobservables. He states that â€Å"global excellence of theory is the ultimate measure of truth and ontology at all levels of cognition†. Although churchland has exactly the same attitude to observables and unobservables, a cautious skeptical attitude, relative to his peers he has a slightly pro attitude to unobsevables, and a negative attitude to observables. This pro – attitude to the unobservables of science makes him a realist and his slightly negative attitude to the observables of everyday life make him a scientific realist â€Å"the function of science, therefore, is to provide us with a superior and (in the long run) perhaps profoundly different conception of the world, even at the perceptual level†. I agree with Churchland as to the theoretical character of perceptual judgments, I agree that â€Å"perception consists in the conceptual exploitation of the natural information contained in our sensations or sensory states† . Having done part of a module on â€Å"the brain as a statistician† I know that our perceptual judgments are statistical decision problems akin to gambling or any decision based on uncertain evidence. Because inputs are noisy – the external world and inefficient transduction creates noise- the question of whether a signal is present or not will reflect the relative probability that a signal is drawn from distribution A(noise only) or distribution B(signal + noise). Biasing factors are the probability of occurrence of a member of each category, information on which is drawn from memory. Perceptual decisions rely on perception and memory, or evidence and prior knowledge, prior knowledge being essentially a theory about the world. However I disagree with Paul Churchland as to the possibility of our being trained to make systematic perceptual judgments in terms of theories other than the common sense theory we ‘learnt at our mothers knee’ For one, I don’t think we learn our common sense theory rather it is built into our genetics. I do not think we are nearly as plastic as he makes out, on this point I go with Gerry Fodor, perception and cognition are not continuous, and perception can never make judgments in terms of grand theories which we can barely conceive. The boundary between what can be observed and what must be inferred is largely determined by fixed architectural features of an organisms sensory / perceptual psychology† Gerry Fodor Observation Reconsidered. Paul Churchland directly contradicts this saying â€Å"our current modes of conceptual exploitation (perception) are rooted, in substantial measure, not in the nature of our perceptual environment, nor in the innate featu res of our psychology, but rather in the structure and content of our common language†. How plastic the brain may be is an empirical point, and I think Gerry Fodor wins the debate with his analysis of the muller-lyer illusion. Fodor says the robustness of the muller lyer illusion attests to the imperviousness of perception by cognition. There are both perceptual plasiticities and implasticities. Kuhn was impressed by the plasticities, but it is time to dwell more on the implasticities. â€Å"To the best of my knowledge, all the standard perceptual illusions exhibit this curious refractory character :knowing they are illusions doesn’t make them go away† However I don’t think Fodor is being entirely empirically accurate. Some illusions such as the concave – convex illusion, in which heavily shaded circles appear as concave when the shadow is at the top of the circle, and convex when the shadow is at the bottom of the circle, which occurs because we have a strong prior belief / prior assumption that light falls from above, can be reversed or at least nullified if you really try. The famous duck rabbit can definitely be flipped at will. And the old hag, young girl illusion, personally I can never see the old hag unless it is explained to e, then I can. But anyway Fodor makes his point, we cannot always see just what we want to see or think we should see. I agree with Gerry Fodor that perception is fairly modular, and is not (probably) affected (much) by conscious explicit knowledge. Certainly the muller lyer illusion is fairly robust And I think far too much is made of the duck rabbit illusion – Kuhn says â€Å"it is as elementary prototypes for these transformations of the scientists wo rld view that the familiar demonstrations of a switch in gestalt prove so suggestive†. But I do not think they are anything more than just that – suggestive – because a scientist, does not, cannot form an image or representation of quarks and leptons in any way analogous to a duck or a rabbit, so this image cannot ‘flip’. Paul Churchland seems to think we can form such images, but personally I cannot. I see the western sky redden as the sun sets not â€Å"the wavelength distribution of incoming solar radiation shift towards the longer wavelengths†. However I would say our inability to alter our perception does not damage churchland’s essential point which was that perception relies on theory, implicit theory. A very entrenched embedded theory, but theory all the same. Churchland thinks the distinction between the theoretical and the non-theoretical is just a distinction between freshly minted theory and thoroughly thumb-worn theory whose ‘cultural assimilation is complete’. I think some ‘thumb-worn theory’ is actually entrenched in our biology. But maybe individual differences come into play here, maybe some people are more plastic than others, or innately sensitive to some aspects of reality than others, maybe our biology is not universal. Paul Churchland says that the person with perfect pitch is not a physiological freak but a practiced observer. But I think it most likely that there is something unique about them. Maybe I am closed minded in the sort of visualization Churchland encourages, maybe that’s just me, I had no luck with seeing in the fourth dimension even after reading ‘Flatland’ and ‘speculations on the fourth dimension’ whereas other people (the authors) claim to have, still I’m a bit skeptical. Paul Churland’s thought experiments where he gets us to imagine various other beings, with radically different physiology, beings that can visually see infra-red heat for example, raises the idea of the possibility of other sensory modalities. And although we cannot communicate with them, so they are not part of our epistemic community, there are animals on our planet who presumably sense different things to us, such as bats and dolphins. Van Fraassen insists that is ‘observable’ must be observable to us unassisted, and as we currently are, an anthropocentric conception; â€Å"the limitations to which the ‘able’ in observable refers are our limitations qua human beings. † It could be argued that Van Fraassens anthropocentric conception of the observable is not just anthropocentric, but parochial. Alternatively it could be argued that van fraassen draws the line arbitrarily: according to Van Fraassen we can observe planets using a telescope, but we cannot observe viruses using a microscope, because planets are something we could observe without any augmentation of the senses, where we close enough to them, and indeed some of them we can observe from earth, our natural position, (venus) whereas under normal conditions viruses cannot be seen. I do not agree with this objection to Van Fraassen, I think where he draws the line is one natural place to draw it if it has to be drawn, but it is just that I don’t agree with him that the drawing of the line here is very significant. I am a realist and I believe unobservables are generally as real as observables. From his drawing of the line, van Fraassen only believes in observables. Fodor lightly passes over the fact that â€Å"perceptual analyses are undetermined by sensory arrays† and are only resolved by Bayesian reasoning from previous evidence / experience, and that â€Å"the appeal to background theory is inherent to the process of perceptual analysis† Fodor Observaiton reconsidered. I think this fact is indisputable, and it is in this respect that perception and cognition are similar as Paul churchland maintains, both are theories and â€Å"global excellence of theory is the ultimate measure of truth and ontology at all levels of cognition† . The impossibility of our being trained to make systematic perceptual judgments in terms of theories other that the common sense theory we ‘learnt at our mothers knee’, the implasticity of actual human perception, is irrelevant in drawing a theory observation distinction, both perception and cognition are theory dependent. But Granted as Fodor points out against Kuhn scientific knowledge doesn’t actually percolate down to affect the perceptual. Kuhnian perceptual theory loading does not occur. There is some natural barrier. Is this barrier the location of the O/T distinction? I think it probably is if there is one. It is significant, but not significant for the anti-realist, it does not decide our ontology. It is significant in the realists fight with relativism since observations are theory laden, but are not necessarily laden with the high level theories that they must adjudicate between. So perceptions are laden with perceptual theory, but not laden with quantum theory. Fodor makes the O/T distinction in such a way that it is significant for realists against relativism, but not significant for anti-realists. â€Å"Fodor isn’t looking for a notion of observationality that underwrites our granting epistemic privilege to observation statements. He’s looking for a notion that will ward off the incommensurability arguments. And for that purpose anything that produces consensus will do† Andre Kukla The theory observation distinction. Now to explicitly tackle the questions, â€Å"why make a distinction, for what purpose? †or â€Å"why does it matter if a distinction does or does not present itself? †. I have already touched on the answer to these questions when outlining the role of the distinction (or lack of) in larger debates between anti-realists, and relativists. The question of the O/T distinction has epistemological significance; it concerns the epistemic bearing of observational evidence on theories it is used to evaluate. This is part of the debate between realists and relativists. The relativists holding that observation is an inadequate basis for choosing between rival theories, the realists claiming it is an adequate basis, or there is at least something which is an adequate basis. Observational evidence also plays important and philosophically interesting roles in other areas including scientific discovery and the application of scientific theories to practical problems. But we will concentrate on theory testing. It seems that if all observations are theory laden then there is no objective bedrock against which to test and justify theory. The classic or common view of science is that scientific knowledge is derived from the ‘facts’ or observations. Two schools of thought that involve attempts to formalize this common view of science are the empiricists and the positivists. An extreme interpretation of the claim that science is derived from the facts implies that the facts must first be established, and subsequently a theory built to fit them. This is the baconian method building a case from the ground up. This is not how science actually proceeds. â€Å"our search for relevant facts needs to be guided by our current state of knowledge, which tells us for example that measuring the ozone concentration at various locations in the atmosphere yields relevant facts whereas measuring the average hair length of the youths in Sydney does not† A F chalmers What is this thing called Science?. But the fact that science is guided by paradigms does not support kuhnian relativism. Kuhnian relativism can only be established if incommensurability is, that is if high level theory-loading of observation were established. As I have already argued along with Fodor, observation may be loaded with low level perceptual theory but not with high level conscious and elaborate theory. Proponents of competing theories often produce impressively similar observational data, this indicates perceptual theory loading is not that great. If science were blinded by paradigms that would be a different matter. Against semantic theory loading; Often observations reported non-linguistically, pictorially with tables of numbers etc. Late 20th century philosophers may have exaggerated the influence of semantic loading because they thought of theory testing in terms of inferential relations between observational and theoretical sentences. Against Salience or attentional loading scientists under different paradigms attend to different things. Yes, but doesn’t always happen. And scientists may appreciate the significance of data that is brought to their attention that had not been noticed. Attentional loading is not inevitable and not irredeemable. So observation is and adequate basis for adjudicating between theories (unless the theories are underdetermined by data). In conclusion I would say there is no absolute T/O distinction, but there is enough of a difference, enough bottom up flow of justification, to defeat relativism. A. F. chalmers: what is this thing called science? Paul M Churchland: Scientific realism and the plasticity of the mind Paul M churchland: The ontological status of obsservables: In praise of superempirical virtues Gerry Fodor: observation reconsidered Andre Kukla: the theory observation distinction W. V. O Quine: Word and Object Bas Van Fraassen: the scientific image

Basic Unix Commands (1) Essays - System Administration, Passwd

Basic Unix Commands (1) Essays - System Administration, Passwd Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science CSCI 211 UNIX Lab Basic Unix Commands (1) Dr. Jiang Li Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Todays Focus System login Directories and files Basic commands (directory and file related) id, passwd ls, chmod man cd, pwd Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Logging in Connecting to a remote machine: Well connect to the Linux Server via SSH (available in putty) The servers address is 138.238.148.14 After connection, you are presented with a login prompt Input your username and password to login After logging in, youre placed in your home directory(where your personal files are located) Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Putty Connection Interface Input the servers address in Host Name text box Choose SSH as the connection type Use the default port number 22 Click Open button to connect to the server Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science The Command Prompt After you login, you will see the command promptat beginning of each line You can type your commands after the command prompt A command consists of a command name and some option(s) called flag(s) In Unix and Linux, everything (including commands) is case-sensitive. Command promptCommand(optional) flags(optional) arguments Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science idCommand Users and Groups Linux is a multi-user/group system Each user belongs to one or more groups Each group contains one or more users id Get the information of the login account Users id, username, group id and groups names that the user belongs to Example [prompt] $ id uid=51931(hguo) gid=14082(cgroup761) groups=14082(cchome761),16207(admin_nonprod),16210(admin_ prod) Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Setting a Password passwdcommand You can use passwdto change/setting a password for your account You need to input your old password for authentication, then input your new password two times Example [prompt] $ passwd Changing password for hguo. Enter login(LDAP) password: New password: Re-enter new password: Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Directories In Unix, files are grouped together in places called directories, which are analogous to foldersin Windows Directory paths are separated by a forward slash: / Example: /home/scs/howard The hierarchical structure of directories (the directory tree) begins at a special directory called the root, or / Absolute paths start at / Example: /home/robh/classes/sycs211 Relative paths start in the current directory Example: classes/sycs211(if youre currently in /home/robh) Your home directory ~ is where your personal files are located, and where you start when you log in. Example: /home/yourusername Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Directories (contd) Following symbolshave special meanings you need to know ~: Your home directory ..: The parent directory .: The current directory Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Files File is a logical unit used to store users and/or system data Ultimately, Linux is a collection of files stored on the hard disk Filename Unix filenames are much like the filenames on other OS. But unlike Windows, Unix file types (e.g. executable files, data files, text files) are not determined by file extension (e.g. foo.exe, foo.dat, foo.txt) Many file-manipulation commands use only 2 letters e.g., ls, cd, cp, mv, rm, nl, etc. Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science List the Content lscommand One of the most frequently used command LiSts the contents (and their attributes) in a specified directory (or the current directory if no arguments are specified) Syntax: ls [args> ] Example: ls backups/ List the contents in backups directory Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science The lsCommand with -l ls l This command gives more information about the files present in the current directory. Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Notes on access permissions Example: (a) drwxrwxr (b) -rwxr-x- First character: directory (d) or file (-). Then, 3 groups of 3 letters (total 9 letters) Owners permission, Group members, Others Within each group Readable (r) / Writable (w) / Executable (x) No permission is represented by a dash (-) Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Notes on access permissions Example -rwxrwxrwx Everybody can read, write and execute the file Lowest security, highest accessibility -rw- Only the owner can read and write the file Highest security, lowest accessibility Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science chmod-Modify Permissions Syntax: chmod [OPTION] mode FILE/DIR Examples: chmod u+rwx myfile chmod go-w mydir Remove write permission on group&others for mydir directory r: readable w: writeable x: executable u: user g: group o: others +: assign -: remove Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science The lsCommand with -a ls a Using (-a) flag shows allfiles/sub-directories, including visible files and invisible files Invisible files filename start with dot sign e.g.: .profile, .bashrc, ., .. Jiang Li, Ph.D. Department of Computer Science Getting help with man man(short for manual) documents for commands man cmd> retrieves detailed information about cmd> man kkeyword> searches the short descriptions and manual pages for keyword(faster, and will probably give better results) fiji:~$ man k password Passwd (5) -password file

Carbon Dioxide Poisoning Causes and Treatment

Carbon Dioxide Poisoning Causes and Treatment You are exposed to carbon dioxide every day in the air you breathe and in household products, so you might be concerned about carbon dioxide poisoning. Heres the truth about carbon dioxide poisoning and whether its something you need to worry about. Can Carbon Dioxide Poison You? At ordinary levels, carbon dioxide or CO2 is non-toxic. It is a normal component of air and so safe it is added to beverages to carbonate them. When you use baking soda or baking powder, you are purposely introducing carbon dioxide bubbles into your food to make it rise. Carbon dioxide is as safe a chemical as any youll ever encounter. Then Why the Concern Over Carbon Dioxide Poisoning? First, its easy to confuse carbon dioxide, CO2, with carbon monoxide, CO. Carbon monoxide is a product of combustion, among other things, and is extremely toxic. The two chemicals are not the same, but because they both have carbon and oxygen in them and sound similar, some people get confused. Yet, carbon dioxide poisoning is a real concern. It is possible to suffer anoxia or asphyxiation from breathing carbon dioxide, because increased levels of carbon dioxide may be related to decreased concentration of oxygen, which you need in order to live. Another potential concern is dry ice, which is the solid form of carbon dioxide. Dry ice generally is not toxic, but it is extremely cold, so if you touch it you risk getting frostbite. Dry ice sublimates into carbon dioxide gas. The cold carbon dioxide gas is heavier than the surrounding air, so the concentration of carbon dioxide near the floor may be high enough to displace oxygen, potentially posing a danger to pets or small children. Dry ice does not pose a significant hazard when it is used in a well-ventilated area. Carbon Dioxide Intoxication and Carbon Dioxide Poisoning As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, people start to experience carbon dioxide intoxication, which may progress to carbon dioxide poisoning and sometimes death. Elevated blood and tissue levels of carbon dioxide are termed hypercapnia and hypercarbia. Carbon Dioxide Poisoning Causes There are several causes of carbon dioxide poisoning and intoxication. It may result from hypoventilation, which in turn may be caused by not breathing often or deeply enough, rebreathing exhaled air (e.g., from a blanket over the head or sleeping in a tent), or breathing in an enclosed space (e.g., a mine, a closet, a shed). Scuba divers are at risk of carbon dioxide intoxication and poisoning, usually from poor air filtration, not breathing at the normal rate, or simply from having a harder time breathing. Breathing the air near volcanoes or their vents may cause hypercapnia. Sometimes carbon dioxide levels become imbalanced when a person is unconscious. Carbon dioxide poisoning can occur in space craft and submarines when scrubbers arent functioning properly. Carbon Dioxide Poisoning Treatment Treatment of carbon dioxide intoxication or carbon dioxide poisoning involves getting carbon dioxide levels back to normal in the patients bloodstream and tissues. A person suffering from mild carbon dioxide intoxication typically can recover simply by breathing normal air. However, it is important to communicate a suspicion of carbon dioxide intoxication in case the symptoms worsen so that proper medical treatment may be administered. If multiple or serious symptoms are seen, call for emergency medical help. The best treatment is prevention and education so that conditions of high CO2 levels are avoided and so you know what to watch for if you suspect the levels may be too high. Symptoms of Carbon Dioxide Intoxication and Poisoning Deeper breathing Twitching of muscles Increased blood pressure Headache Increased pulse rate Loss of judgment Labored breathing Unconsciousness (occurs in under a minute when CO2 concentration rises about 10%) Death Reference EIGA (European Industrial Gases Association), Carbon Dioxide Physiological Hazards - Not Just an Asphyxiant, retrieved 01/09/2012. Key Points Carbon dioxide poisoning results in a condition called hypercapnia or hypercarbia.Carbon dioxide intoxication and poisoning can elevate pulse rate and blood pressure, produce a headache, and result in poor judgement. It can result in unconsciousness and death.There are multiple causes of carbon dioxide poisoning. Lack of air circulation, in particular, can be dangerous because breathing removes oxygen from the air and adds to its carbon dioxide content.While carbon dioxide can be toxic, it is a normal component of air. The body actually uses carbon dioxide to maintain proper pH levels and to synthesize fatty acids.